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Comma (,)

A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. Used properly, commas make the meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words, phrases, and clauses.

Using commas in lists

You need to put a comma between the different items in a list e.g:

Saturday morning started with a hearty breakfast of scrambled eggs, bacon, sausage, and French toast.

Using commas in direct speech

When a writer quotes a speaker’s words exactly as they were spoken, this is known as direct speech. If the piece of direct speech comes after information about who is speaking, you need to use a comma to introduce the direct speech. The comma comes before the first quotation mark.

Steve replied, ‘No problem.’ Note: The final quotation mark follows the full stop at the end of the direct speech: The reverse is also true:
‘I don’t agree,’ I replied. ‘Here we are,’ they said. Note: In this case, the comma goes inside the quotation mark: There are two exceptions to this rule. If a piece of direct speech takes the form of a question or an exclamation, you should end it with a question mark or an exclamation mark, rather than a comma:
‘Stop him!’ she shouted. ‘Did you see that?’ he asked. Both rules in one sentence:
‘Yes,’ he said, ‘and I always keep my promises.’

Using commas to separate clauses

Commas are used to separate clauses in a complex sentence (i.e. a sentence which is made up of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses) e.g:

Having had lunch, we went back to work. [subordinate clause], [main clause]
I first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early nineties. [main clause], [subordinate clause]* A subordinate clause beginning with ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘that’, ‘whom’, or ‘where’ is known as a relative clause. The following is a non-restrictive relative clause (this could be removed and the sentence still has meaning):
Mary, who has two young children, has a part-time job in the library. [clause], [non-restrictive relative clause], [clause]* There are also restrictive relative clauses, is these are removed then the sentence doesn’t make sense e.g:
Passengers, who have young children, may board the aircraft first. [clause], [restrictive relative clause], [clause]* If you left the restrictive relative clause out, the sentence wouldn’t make much sense. It would become: Passengers may board the aircraft first. You should not put commas round a restrictive relative clause.

Using commas to mark off parts of a sentence

Commas are used to separate a part of a sentence that is an optional ‘aside’ and not part of the main statement.

Gunpowder is not, of course, a chemical compound.
His latest film, Calypso Dreams, opens next month. If you aren’t sure whether you’ve used a pair of commas correctly, try replacing them with brackets or removing the information enclosed by the commas altogether, and then see if the sentence is still understandable, or if it still conveys the meaning you intended.

Using a comma with ‘however’

You should use a comma after ‘however’ when however means ‘by contrast’ or ‘on the other hand’:

However, a good deal of discretion is left in the hands of area managers. Don’t use a comma after however when it means ‘in whatever way’:
However you look at it, existing investors are likely to lose out.

Apostrophe (‘)

There are two main cases where an apostrophe is used, to show possession and show omission.

Apostrophes showing possession

You use an apostrophe to show that a thing or person belongs or relates to someone or something: instead of saying the party of Ben or the weather of yesterday, you can write Ben’s party and yesterday’s weather. Here are the main guidelines for using apostrophes to show possession:

Singular nouns and most personal names

With a singular noun or most personal names: add an apostrophe plus s:

We met at Ben’s party.
The dog’s tail wagged rapidly.
Yesterday’s weather was dreadful.

Personal names that end in -s

With personal names that end in -s: add an apostrophe plus s when you would naturally pronounce an extra s if you said the word out loud:

He joined Charles’s army in 1642.
Thomas’s brother was injured in the accident. Note that there are some exceptions to this rule, especially in names of places or organizations, for example:
St Thomas’ Hospital With personal names that end in -s but are not spoken with an extra s: just add an apostrophe after the -s:
The court dismissed Bridges’ appeal.
Connors’ finest performance was in 1991.

Plural nouns that end in -s

With a plural noun that already ends in -s: add an apostrophe after the s:

The mansion was converted into a girls’ school.
The work is due to start in two weeks’ time.
My duties included cleaning out the horses’ stables.

Plural nouns that do not end in -s

With a plural noun that doesn’t end in -s: add an apostrophe plus s:

The children’s father came round to see me.
He employs 14 people at his men’s clothing store.

Apostrophes showing omission

An apostrophe can be used to show that letters or numbers have been omitted. Here are some examples of apostrophes that indicate missing letters:

I’m - short for I am.
He’ll - short for he will.
She’d - short for she had or she would.
Pick ‘n’ mix - short for pick and mix.
‘89 (short for 1989).

Apostrophes and plural forms

You should not use an apostrophe to form the plurals of nouns, abbreviations, or dates made up of numbers: just add -s (or -es, if the noun in question forms its plural with -es). For example:

Euro - euros (e.g. The cost of the trip is 570 euros.)
pizza - pizzas (e.g. Traditional Italian pizzas are thin and crisp.)
MP - MPs (e.g. Local MPs are divided on this issue.)
1990 - 1990s (e.g. The situation was different in the 1990s.) You can use an apostrophe to show the plurals of single letters or numbers:
I’ve dotted the i’s and crossed the t’s.
Find all the p’s in appear.
Find all the number 7’s.

Colon (:)

There are three main uses of the colon: 1 - between two main clauses in cases where the second clause explains or follows from the first:

That is the secret of my extraordinary life: always do the unexpected.
It wasn’t easy: to begin with, I had to find the right house. 2 - to introduce a list:
The price includes the following: travel to London, flight to Venice, hotel accommodation, and excursions. 3 - before a quotation, and sometimes before direct speech:
The headline read: ‘Taxi Driver Battles Gangsters’.
They shouted: ‘Our families are starving! We need land!’

Semicolon (;)

The main task of the semicolon is to mark a break that is stronger than a comma but not as final as a full stop. It’s used between two main clauses that balance each other and are too closely linked to be made into separate sentences, as in these two examples:

The road runs through a beautiful wooded valley; the railway line follows it.
An art director searched North Africa; I went to the Canary Islands. You can also use a semicolon as a stronger division in a sentence that already contains commas:
The study showed the following: 76% of surveyed firms monitor employee Web-surfing activities, with 65% blocking access to unauthorized Internet locations; over one-third of the firms monitor employee computer keystrokes; half reported storing and reviewing employee emails; 57% monitor employee telephone behaviour, including the inappropriate use of voicemail.

Affect or Effect

Affect and effect are different in meaning, though frequently confused.

Affect is chiefly used as a verb and its main meaning is ‘to influence or make a difference to’:

The pay increase will greatly affect their lifestyle.
The dampness began to affect my health.
The weather will affect my plans for the weekend.

Effect is used as both a noun and a verb, although is more commonly used as a noun. As a noun it means ‘a result or an influence’:

Move the cursor until you get the effect you want.
The beneficial effects of exercise are well documented.
Over time the effect of loud music can damage your hearing. When used as a verb effect means ‘to bring something about as a result’. It’s most often used in a formal context as oppose to everyday English:
Growth in the economy can only be effected by stringent economic controls.
The new policies did little to effect change.
The prime minister effected many policy changes.

Into or in to

Into has several meanings, mainly relating to movement, action, or change:

Describing movement or action that results in someone or something becoming enclosed, surrounded by, or being in contact with something else: Martin put the wine into the fridge; Pat crashed into another car.
Towards the direction of something: the main road leads into the city centre.
Expressing a change of state: the peaceful demo turned into a violent confrontation.
Showing the result of an action: the minister was forced into a public apology.
About or relating to something: an investigation into the incident is under way.
Used when dividing numbers: two goes into six three times.
Used informally to mean actively interested in something: she’s into running

Examples

Correct

The second half of the film degenerates into a series of sketches.
They finally gave in to his demands.

Incorrect

I got in to my car and zoomed off home.
The plane flew in to Gatwick an hour late.
She was brought into work on costume design
He’s really in to tennis.

Lead or Led

“Lead” is a metal. When it’s a verb, “lead” is the present and “led” is the past tense. The problem is that the past tense is pronounced exactly like the above-mentioned metal, so people confuse the two. In a sentence like “She led us to the scene of the crime,” always use the three-letter spelling.

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English / Punctuation Cheat Sheet

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